2014年3月22日中国大陆托福考试全真试题英文还原

　　Reading

　　Children in different age own different behaviors.

　　The objective of the Bernard van Leer Foundation is to improve opportunities for young children living in disadvantaged circumstances. There are common threads running through all the work that we support in countries around the world: empowering parents and communities; building up self-esteem in children and families; enabling families and communities to make their own decisions. Our approach means that we do not perceive disadvantage as a problem to be solved or compensated for; instead, we try to look for the strengths that exist within individuals and their environments in order to build upon them. Rather than examining `failures', we want to understand why some people and communities survive and thrive against all odds so that we can learn lessons that can be shared with others.

　　The work of the International Resilience Project fits well into this approach. Edith Grotberg defines resilience as a `universal capacity which allows a person, group or community to prevent, minimize or overcome the damaging effects of adversity'. By investigating this construct at an international level, the project enables us to gain some understanding of the combination of factors that result in resilience in children. By writing this Guide, Edith Grotberg has managed to turn a set of concepts into practical tools that can be incorporated into the everyday work of development projects. Thus, it also serves as an example of how theory and research can be turned into practice.

　　In the Guide, the main factors that make up resilience are grouped under three headings: I HAVE, I AM, I CAN. Such headings may appear overly assertive in some societies where, for example, the prevailing belief is that `children should be seen but not heard'. However, it is up to each reader to take what he or she can from this Guide and adapt it to the people, the setting and the culture. Whatever the society, there can be no argument that children should feel loved and lovable, should be respectful and responsible, and should know who they can approach in times of need. This may seem to be self-evident but the research has found that most parents and care givers do not know about resilience or how to promote it in children. Thus, too many adults inhibit and even thwart the development of resilience, leaving countless children feeling helpless, sad and unloved.

　　As a Foundation, scientists have gained new understandings through our membership on the Advisory Committee of the International Resilience Project, and we are pleased to be able to publish this Guide. Scientists hope that it will inspire development workers to examine their own work with new eyes and to incorporate those aspects they find relevant into their work with children and families.

　　In the researches, children in few months old, 2 years old, and 5 years old played games like simulating normal life or holding a block and acclaiming that is a car. These behaviors can help them improve their social skills, release the comflicts, and reduce their negative emotion.

　　Crust Mantle, and Core

　　A knowledge of earth's interior is essential for understanding plate tectonics. A good analogy for teaching about earth's interior is a piece of fruit with a large pit such as a peach or a plum. Most students are familiar with these fruits and have seen them cut in half. In addition the size of the features are very similar.

　　If we cut a piece of fruit in half we will see that it is composed of three parts: 1) a very thin skin, 2) a seed of significant size located in the center, and 3) most of the mass of the fruit being contained within the flesh. Cutting the earth we would see: 1) a very thin crust on the outside, 2) a core of significant size in the center, and 3) most of the mass of the Earth contained in the mantle.

　　There are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean basins and thicker continental crust that underlies the continents. These two different types of crust are made up of different types of rock. The thin oceanic crust is composed of primarily of basalt and the thicker continental crust is composed primarily of granite. The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to "float" in high relief on the much higher density mantle below.

　　Earth's mantle is thought to be composed mainly of olivine-rich rock. It has different temperatures at different depths. The temperature is lowest immediately beneath the crust and increases with depth. The highest temperatures occur where the mantle material is in contact with the heat-producing core. This steady increase of temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient is responsible for different rock behaviors and the different rock behaviors are used to divide the mantle into two different zones. Rocks in the upper mantle are cool and brittle, while rocks in the lower mantle are hot and soft (but not molten). Rocks in the upper mantle are brittle enough to break under stress and produce earthquakes. However, rocks in the lower mantle are soft and flow when subjected to forces instead of breaking. The lower limit of brittle behavior is the boundary between the upper and lower mantle.

　　Earth's Core is thought to be composed mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. This composition is assumed based upon calculations of its density and upon the fact that many meteorites (which are thought to be portions of the interior of a planetary body) are iron-nickel alloys. The core is earth's source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials which release heat as they break down into more stable substances.

　　The core is divided into two different zones. The outer core is a liquid because the temperatures there are adequate to melt the iron-nickel alloy. However, the inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer core. Here, tremendous pressure, produced by the weight of the overlying rocks is strong enough to crowd the atoms tightly together and prevents the liquid state.

　　The language Research of apes

　　Non-human animals have been recorded to have produced behaviors that are consistent with meanings accorded to human sentence productions. (A production is a stream of lexemes with semantic content. A language is grammar and a set of lexemes. A sentence, or statement, is a stream of lexemes that obeys a grammar, with a beginning and an end.) Some animals in the following species can be said to "understand" (receive), and some can "apply" (produce) consistent, appropriate, grammatical streams of communication. David Premack and Jacques Vauclair have cited language research for the following animals:Common chimpanzees,Bonobos, Gorillas,Orangutans.

　　Sign language and computer keyboards are used in primate language research because non-human primate vocal cords cannot close fully,and they have less control of the tongue and lower jaw.[However, primates do possess the manual dexterity required for keyboard operation.Many researchers into animal language have presented the results of the studies described below as evidence of linguistic abilities in animals. Many of their conclusions have been disputed.It is now generally accepted that Apes can learn to sign and are able to communicate with humans. However, it is disputed as to whether they can form syntax to manipulate such signs.

　　In the first long-term study of gestural communication in the wild, researchers from the University of St Andrews, working at the Budongo Conservation Field Station in Uganda, found a large repertoire of at least 66 different gestures (including bodily movements), which included almost all types of gesture reported in studies from other chimpanzee sites both in captivity and the wild. This led them to argue that the repertoire of available gesture types that can be employed in natural chimpanzee gestural communication is species-typical.In a parallel study at the same site, researchers from Stirling found 30 different manual gesture types in mature chimpanzees; many of which appear similar to human manual gestures such as arm beckon, point, clap and flail.

　　Despite their impressive (although still sometimes disputed) achievements, Kanzi and other apes, who participated in similar experiments, failed to ask questions themselves. Joseph Jordania suggested that the ability to ask questions is probably the central cognitive element that distinguishes human and animal cognitive abilities.Enculturated apes, who underwent extensive language training programs, successfully learned to answer quite complex questions and requests (including question words "who" what", "where"), although so far they failed to learn how to ask questions themselves. For example, David and Anne Premack wrote: "Though she [Sarah] understood the question, she did not herself ask any questions - unlike the child who asks interminable questions, such as What that? Who making noise? When Daddy come home? Me go Granny's house? Where puppy? Sarah never delayed the departure of her trainer after her lessons by asking where the trainer was going, when she was returning, or anything else".The ability to ask questions is sometimes assessed in relation to comprehension of syntactic structures. Jordania suggested that this approach is not justified, as (1) questioning is primarily a cognitive ability, and (2) questions can be asked without the use of syntactic structures (with the use of specific intonation only). It is widely accepted that the first questions are asked by humans during their early infancy, at the pre-syntactic, one word stage of language development, with the use of question intonation.